Moluccas

DUTCH PORTUGUESE COLONIAL HISTORY

Historia Colonial de Portugal e Holanda

Portugese en Nederlandse Koloniale Geschiedenis

With information also about other colonial powers

Moluccas

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INDEX

PORTUGUESE COLONIALISM
PORTUGUESE COLONIAL REMAINS:
Portuguese Colonial Remains in Africa
Portuguese Colonial Remains in America
Portuguese Colonial Remains in Asia
Portuguese Forts on Google Earth
PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE:
Portuguese Language Heritage in Asia
A Herança da Língua Portuguesa no Oriente
Portuguese language heritage in Africa
Português em Moçambique por Dietrich Köster
PORTUGUESE POPULATION:
Population of the Portuguese Settlements in India
PORTUGUESE COLONIAL EMPIRE MAPS:
The Portuguese Empire in America and Africa
The Portuguese Empire in the East
PORTUGUESE GOVERNORS:
Governors and Viceroy of Portuguese Brazil, 1549-1760
AFRICA:
Arguin: a Portuguese fort in Mauritania
The European forts in Ghana
La rivolta degli schiavi di São Tomé, 1595
Principe island: Fortaleza de Santo António da Ponta da Mina
São Tomé e Príncipe: Situação actual e Perspectivas de Desenvolvimento por Dietrich Köster
Madagascar: a mysterious settlement
Madagascar: une mystérieuse colonie
Mombasa a Portuguese fortress in Kenya
ASIA:
ARABIA:
The Portuguese in  Arabia Peninsula and in the Persian Gulf (Hormuz, Oman, Mascate, Bahrein)
Borca Fort
Curiate and Sidabo Forts
Doba Fort
Mada and Libidia Forts
Mascate Fort
Matarâ (Matrah) Fort
Quelba and Corfação Forts
Sibo Fort
Soar Fort
News on Colonial History in Arabia and Persian Gulf
INDIA:
Portuguese India: DIU, a Portuguese fortress in Gujarat
Portuguese India: the Northern Province (Provincia do Norte) Baçaim, Chaul, Damao,  Bombaim
Portuguese India: Baçaim, Bassein, Vasai by Sushant Raut
Portuguese India: Goa, Rainha do Oriente
Portuguese India: Cochin and Malabar
The Portuguese in the Bay of Bengal
SRI LANKA (CEYLON):
The Portuguese in Ceylon
Les Portugais a Ceylan
Ribeiro's narrative of the Portuguese  fortresses and settlements in Ceylon
La storia di Batticaloa
La storia di Trincomale
Forts and Churches in Sri Lanka
Maps of the territorial expansion of the Dutch and the Portuguese in Ceylon
The last years of the Portuguese presence in Ceylon, the war against the Dutch
INDEXES of reviews about CEYLON:
Index of the Aquinas Journal
BURMA:
The Portuguese in Burma
MALAYSIA:
Portuguese Malacca
INDONESIA:
Makassar and the Portuguese
The Portuguese in the Spices Islands: the Moluccas, Solor, Timor
Report of the visits to Solor and Ende forts by Mark Schellekens
Photos of Portuguese fort in Ende by Mark Schellekens
Photos of Portuguese fort in Solor by Mark Schellekens
TIMOR LESTE:

Timor Leste East Timor Timor Est

Cronologia dell'espansione portoghese a Timor di Davide Parassoni
CHINA-JAPAN:
Macao: the last colony
SOUTH AMERICA:
BRAZIL:
Parati
Salvador (Bahia)
Forts of Salvador (Bahia)
Recife
Forts of Recife
Olinda
Igarassu
Forts of Fernando de Noronha
Fortaleza of Nossa Senhora dos Remédios, Fernando de Noronha
URUGUAY:
Colonia del Sacramento by Pedro Gonçalves
CHRONOLOGIES:
PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS:
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in West Africa
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in East Africa
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in Asia: Arabia
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in Asia: India and Bangladesh
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in Asia: Sri Lanka
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in Asia: South East and Far East
Chronological list of Portuguese possessions in America
As Independências do Ultramar Português por Dietrich Köster
PORTUGUESE BIBLIOGRAPHIES:
Portuguese Bibliography General
Portuguese Bibliography Africa
Portuguese Bibliography America
Portuguese Bibliography Asia General
Portuguese Bibliography Middle East
Portuguese Bibliography India
Portuguese Bibliography Sri Lanka
Portuguese Bibliography East Asia
Portuguese Bibliography Varied

DUTCH COLONIALISM
DUTCH REMAINS:
Dutch Colonial Remains in Africa
Dutch Colonial Remains in America
Dutch Colonial Remains in Asia
Dutch Forts on Google Earth
DUTCH COLONIAL EMPIRE MAPS:
WIC Empire in the Atlantic
VOC Empire in Asia
Map of the Dutch settlements in Guyana and Suriname (1600-1750)
DUTCH COMPANIES:
WIC: West-Indische Compagnie, Dutch West India Company
VOC: Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Dutch East India Company
DUTCH GOVERNORS:
Governors of the Dutch East Indies
AFRICA:
The European forts in Ghana
Gli Olandesi a São Tomé e Principe
The Dutch in South Africa
The Afrikaans language in South Africa
The Dutch in Mauritius
INDIA:
The Dutch in India: Malabar
The Dutch in India: Coromandel
The Dutch in Bengal
SRI LANKA (CEYLON):
The Dutch in Ceylon: the Burghers
La storia di Batticaloa
La storia di Trincomale
Forts and Churches in Sri Lanka
Maps of the territorial expansion of the Dutch and the Portuguese in Ceylon
The last years of the Portuguese presence in Ceylon, the war against the Dutch
INDEXES of reviews about CEYLON:
Index of the Journal of the Dutch Burgher Union of Ceylon
MALAYSIA:
Dutch Malacca
TAIWAN (FORMOSA):
The Dutch in Formosa
CHINA-JAPAN
Dutch Graves of Macau by Magiel Venema
INDONESIA:
Dutch Batavia (Jakarta)
OCEANIA:
Espansione coloniale in Nuova Guinea di Davide Parassoni
The Voc and Australia  by Peter Reynders
NORTH AMERICA:
The Dutch in North America: New Netherland (Dutch New York), Acadia
CARIBBEAN:
The Dutch and the Courlanders in Tobago
SOUTH AMERICA:
The Dutch in Brazil
The Dutch conquest and occupation of Salvador de Bahia (1624-1625)
Fort Oranje (Orange), Itamaracá: a Dutch fortress in Brazil
Photos of Fort Oranje (Orange), Itamaracá
The Dutch in Chile: Hendrick Brouwer expedition in Valdivia  by Robbert Kock
CHRONOLOGIES:
DUTCH SETTLEMENTS:
Chronological list of  Dutch possessions in North America
Chronological list of  Dutch possessions in Central America
Chronological list of  Dutch possessions in South America
Chronological list of  Dutch possessions in Africa
Chronological list of  Dutch possessions in Asia: Arabia and Persian Gulf
Chronological list of Dutch possessions in Asia: Far East (from Bangladesh to Japan)
DUTCH BIBLIOGRAPHIES:
Dutch Bibliography
Dutch Bibliography Africa
Dutch Bibliography America
Dutch Bibliography Asia
Dutch Bibliography Oceania
OTHER COLONIALISM
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Others Colonialism Bibliography: German, Danish, Swedish, French, Spanish
COURLAND COLONIALISM
CARIBBEAN:
The Dutch and the Courlanders in Tobago
DANISH COLONIALISM
REMAINS:
Danish Colonial Remains
AFRICA:
The European forts in Ghana
ASIA:
Trankebar - Tranquebar
CHRONOLOGIES:
DANISH SETTLEMENTS:
Chronological list of Danish possessions
FRENCH COLONIALISM
SOUTH AMERICA:
The French in Brazil: Saint-Alexis, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Luis do Maranhao
Franceses no Brasil
Français  au Brésil
OCEANIA:
French Colonialism: New Caledonie-Nouvelle Caledonie: Fort Teremba (Grande Terre)
French Colonialism: New Caledonie-Nouvelle Caledonie: Ile des Pines
GERMAN COLONIALISM
REMAINS:
Brandenburg Colonial Remains
AFRICA:
The European forts in Ghana
SOUTH AMERICA:
1824-2004: 180 anos de migração alemã para o Brasil por Dietrich Köster
1824-2004: 180 Jahre deutsche Auswanderung nach Brasilien von Dietrich Köster
OCEANIA:
Deutsch Samoa
Espansione coloniale in Nuova Guinea di Davide Parassoni
1565-1994 Mikronesien - vergessene Inselwelt im Pazifik von Dietrich Köster
CHRONOLOGIES:
Sviluppo Politico delle Ex-Colonie Tedesche a partire dal 1920  di Dietrich Köster
Fortschreibung der vormaligen deutschen Kolonien seit 1920 von Dietrich Köster
Desenvolvimento das antigas Colónias alemãs desde 1920 por Dietrich Köster
ITALIAN COLONIALISM
Italian Colonial Bibliography
RUSSIAN COLONIALISM
NORTH AMERICA:
The Russian presence in America
OCEANIA:
The Russian presence in Hawaii
SPANISH COLONIALISM
REMAINS:
Spanish Colonial Remains: Asia, Africa, Oceania
INDONESIA:
The Spanish presence in the Moluccas
SOUTH AMERICA:
The Jesuits Missions (Reducciones) in Paraguay,Bolivia, Argentina,Brazil
Photos of the Jesuit mission of San Ignacio Mini, Argentina
Jesuit Eastern Bolivia Missions by Geoffrey Groesbeck
Photos of the Jesuit mission of Concepción, Bolivia by Geoffrey Groesbeck
Photos of the Jesuit mission of Santa Ana de Velasco, Bolivia by Geoffrey Groesbeck
Photos of the Jesuit mission of San Ignacio de Velasco, Bolivia by Geoffrey Groesbeck
Photos of the Jesuit mission of San Javier, Bolivia by Geoffrey Groesbeck
Photos of the Jesuit mission of San Miguel de Velasco, Bolivia by Geoffrey Groesbeck
Photos of the Jesuit mission of San Rafael de Velasco, Bolivia by Geoffrey Groesbeck
SWEDISH COLONIALISM
REMAINS:
Swedish Colonial Remains
AFRICA:
The European forts in Ghana
NORTH AMERICA:
The Swedes in North America: Nya Sverige, New Sweden
BOOKS:
Received books on Colonial history
LINKS:
Portuguese Colonial History Links
Dutch Colonial History Links
Miscellaneous Colonial History Links
Copyright © 1998-2006, Marco Ramerini. All rights reserved. e-mail

Last update:    07/02/2007 

 

THE PORTUGUESE IN THE ARABIA PENINSULA AND IN THE PERSIAN GULF

Written by Marco Ramerini

Portuguese Flag

 

The Portuguese, shortly afterwards theirs arrival in the Eastern Seas, decided to prevent the Arab's trade, with the Ormuz conquest.  For his strategical position dominating the entrance to the Persic Gulf, Ormuz was one of the two strategical stronghold on the trade routes between the Arab world and Asia (the other being Aden near the strait of Bab el Mandab).
The city of Ormuz (Hormuz), was one of the most important trade centers of the whole East, in its market were exchanged Persian horses and pearls. The town was placed on a dry and barren island, near the Persian mainland at the entrance of the Persic Gulf.
For nearly 150 years Portugal ruled the Persic Gulf area. Ormuz was regarded by Albuquerque as the third key of the Portuguese Empire in Asia (the others two were Goa and Malacca).

A Portuguese map of the island and the city of Hormuz in the 17th century.

A Portuguese map of the island and the city of Hormuz in the 17th century.

The remains of the underground water cisterns of the Portuguese fort in Hormuz.

The remains of the underground water cisterns of the Portuguese fort in Hormuz.

The first attempt to conquer Ormuz was done in 1507 by Afonso de Albuquerque, he at the head of a small Portuguese fleet of 7 ships and 500 men, proceeded to Ormuz, during the journey, he stormed and conquered the towns of Kuryat, Muscat and Khor Fakkan, differently the town of Kalhat and Sohar, expressed their willingness to become tributary of the King of Portugal.
The Portuguese fleet anchored in front of the town of Ormuz, the King of the city was prepared for an attack, he could count on 15.000/20.000 armed men. Albuquerque was resolute, he asked to the King to pay a tribute and become a vassal of Portugal, but the King's reply was evasive, a simple attempt to protact the negotiations. Albuquerque after three days of waiting, attacked the city, the King's fleet was entirely destroyed, seeing the complete defeat of his forces, the King sent a flag of truce offering to deliver up the city to the Portuguese. Albuquerque concluded, in September 1507, a treaty with the King of Hormuz, under which the King had to pay to the King of Portugal a yearly tribute. After this, Albuquerque and his men began to build the fortress, the first stone was laid on 24 October 1507, the fort was named "Nossa Senhora da Victoria".
During the work for the fortress insubordination arose between the Portuguese, some Portuguese captains, with the help of the King of Ormuz, rebeled against Albuquerque. In Janaury 1508, after several days of skirmish with the Ormuz's forces, Albuquerque was forced to abandon the city.

This was  the first attempt to force the Portuguese rule in the Persic Gulf. The second attempt was made in 1515.
In March 1515, Albuquerque with a force of 27 ships, 1.500 Portuguese and 700 Malabarese soldiers arrived in front of Ormuz, he was determinated to take the town in the name of the King of Portugal, and this time he was successful, the fortress was occupied by the Portuguese on 1 April 1515. The fort was renamed "Nossa Senhora da Conceiçao".
When the Portuguese arrived, the main ports of the Persic Gulf and Arabia such as Julfar, Bahrain, Calayate (Qalhat), Mascate, Catifa (al Qatif), Corfaçao, and the islands of Queixome and Lareca were all under the jurisdiction of the King of Hormuz. With the fall of Ormuz, all the cities and ports of the Persian Gulf became tributary of Portugal.  The kings of Hormuz continued as a regional power, in conjunction with the Portuguese. In this way began the Portuguese rule in the Persic Gulf which lasted till the years 1620/1650.
In a document of the year 1515 ("Rendimento da cidade de Oromuz e seus reinos") are reported the ports that paied tribute to Portugal, they were:
Aigom and Docer "portos que estam na barra de terra firme", Brahemim "porto que esta de fora da ilha d'Oromuz na terra firme", Tezer "lugar na terra firme", Beabom, Borate, Jullfar (Julfar), Callayate (Qalhat), Horfacam (Khor Fakkan), Caçapo (Khasab), Broqete "na ilha Qeixa", Lafete "na ilha Qeixa", Qeixa "na ilha Qeixa", Garpez "na ilha Qeixa", Rodom, Costaque, Chagoa, Callecazei, Lebedia.

The Portuguese forts in the Gulf and in Oman (1500-1650).    

The Portuguese forts in the Gulf and in Oman (1500-1650).    

The Portuguese forts in Bahrein, from the "Livro das Plantas das Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoaçoes do Estado da India Oriental" 1600s.

The Portuguese forts in Bahrein, from the "Livro das Plantas das Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoaçoes do Estado da India Oriental" 1600s.

 

"A cidade de Ormuz està situada em hua pequena ilha chamada Gerum que jaz quasi na garganta de estreito do mar Parseo tam perto da costa da terra de Persia que avera de hua a outra tres leguoas e dez da outra Arabia e terà em roda pouco mais de tres leguoas: toda muy esterele e a mayor parte hua mineira de sal e enxolfre sem naturalmente ter hum ramo ou herva verde.
A cidade em sy é muy magnifica em edificios, grossa em tracto por ser hua escala onde concorrem todalas mercadorias orientaes e occidentaes a ella, e as que vem da Persea, Armenia e Tartaria que lhe jazem ao norte: de maneira que nam tendo a ilha em sy cousa propria, per carreto tem todalas estimadas do mundo /...../ a cidade é tam viçosa e abastada, que dizem os moradores della que o mundo é hum anel e Ormuz hua pedra preciosa engastada nelle"

Joao de Barros, Decada II, L. II cap. 2

 

In 1521, the King of Ormuz rebeled against the Portuguese, but the latter crushed the ribellion and put a new king on the throne.
In 1523, Dom Luis de Menezes occupied Soar, which had revolted, and after this, he proceeded to Qeshm where a new treaty was done with the new King and a feitoria was established.
In 1526, Lopo Vaz de Sampayo the Governor of Portuguese India (1526-1529), reduced to obedience Mascate and Khalat which had revolted.
In 1542/43, the entire Customs duties of Ormuz were assigned to the King of Portugal.
The years between 1550 and 1560 were years of continue warfare with the Turks for the supremacy in the Persian Gulf.
In 1550/51, the Portuguese conquered to the Turks the fort of El Katiff (Al Qatif) in Arabia. In 1551/52, in order to help Ormuz's defence a fort was built in Mascate. The Turks, were determined to take revenge and in 1551/52 they attacked Mascate and sacked the town. In 1559, the Turks besieged the Portuguese fort of Bahrein, but after several months of siege, they were forced to withdraw.
In 1581, Mascate was again destroied by the Turks.  In 1582, the King of Lara (Larack an island near Ormuz), which had revolted, laid siege to the fortress of Ormuz, but the Portuguese succeeded in drive off the invaders and their in turn besieged the Lara's fort of Xamel which was taken by the Portuguese.
Finally, in 1588, the Mascate's fortesses were again rebuilt, this time also the town was strenghten and in the nearby Matara (Matrah) a fort was also built.
In 1602, Shah Abbas expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain.

Tarut Island (near Al Qatif, Saudi Arabia): Portuguese fort (16th c.).      

Tarut Island (near Al Qatif, Saudi Arabia): Portuguese fort (16th c.).

 

Ormuz used for its provisions of water the wells of  Comorao, on the Persian coast, here the Portuguese had a fort, this fort was conquered by the Persian in 1615 (14?) .
In 1616, Soar, which had revolted, was captured by a Portuguese fleet and the King was put to death.
In 1619, the Portuguese fortress of Ormuz had a garrison of 500-700 soldiers.
The fort of Khawr Fakkan (Corfaçao) was built in 1620 by Gaspar Leite.
On 8 May 1621, Rui Freire de Andrada, the "General do Mar de Ormuz e costa da Persia e Arabia", began to build a fort in Queixome (Qeshm), this fort was built to have the controll of the island's water wells. The building of this fort was regarded as an act of open hostility by the Shah of Persia, that waged war against the Portuguese.
In 1622, the Arabs, who had joined with the Persians, succeeded in capturing Julfar from the Portuguese.
On 11 February 1622, the Portuguese fort of Queixome, after a feeble resistence, was forced to surrendered to a joined Persian-English army. On 20 Febraury 1622, the Persian flotilla of more than 3.000 men with the help of 6 English ships besieged the Portuguese fortress of Ormuz.
Ormuz was lost by the Portuguese on 3 May 1622. The entire Portuguese population, about 2.000 persons, were sent to Mascate.

Map of the Portuguese forts in Oman.              

Map of the Portuguese forts in Oman.      

 

During the decade after the fall of Ormuz, the Portuguese, under the command of Rui Freire de Andrada, tried several times (1623, 1624, 1625, 1627) to regain the fortress, the last attempt in 1631, was a diplomatic one, but all these attempts failed.
After the loss of Ormuz the Portuguese established their base in Mascate, and in 1623, a feitoria (trading station) was established also in Bassora at the mouth of the Eufrate River. In 1623, Rui Freire reoccupied the fort of Soar, which had been taken in 1622 by the Persians. In the same year a new base is established in Cassapo (Kashab) in the Musandam Peninsula.
Kalba (Quelba) was conquered by Gaspar Leite in 1624. The fort of Mada was conquered in May 1624 by Mateus de Siebra.
In 1624/25, following a treaty with the Persians, a feitoria and a fortress was established in Congo (Bandar-e Kong), on the Persian coast of the Persic Gulf.
In 1631, a Portuguese fortress was built in Julfar, important strategic point in Musandam Peninsula, this town enjoyed, during Portuguese rule, great prosperity as the regional trading entrepôt.
In September 1633, Rui Freire de Andrada, the great protagonist of these years, died, and his body was buried in the church of  St. Agostinho in Mascate.
In 1633/35, treaties of peace were made with the English and the Persians.

Muscat, Oman (Mascate), Fort Jalali (Fort Sao Joao).      The fortification of Muscat (Mascate) and Matrah (Matara), from the "Livro das Plantas das Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoaçoes do Estado da India Oriental" 1600s.

Muscat, Oman (Mascate), Fort Jalali (Fort Sao Joao). The fortification of Muscat (Mascate) and Matrah (Matara), from the "Livro das Plantas das Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoaçoes do Estado da India Oriental" 1600s.

   Muscat, Oman (Mascate), Fort Mirani.

Muscat, Oman (Mascate), Fort Mirani. My thanks to Peter Rowland for this photo.

   Mutrah, Oman (Matrah, Matara), Portuguese fort.         Quriyrat, Oman (Curiate), tower.

 Mutrah, Oman (Matrah, Matara), Portuguese fort.   Quriyrat, Oman (Curiate), tower.

 

The Portuguese rule in the Perian Gulf was nearly more stable after the loss of Ormuz than before, infact were established several fortresses and feitorias in a lot of places as Soar, Julfar, Doba, Libedia, Mada, Khor Fakkan, Caçapo (Khasab), Congo (Kung), Bassora.
In August 1648, the Arabs besieged Mascate and on 31October a treaty was signed between the two opponents. The terms were as follows: the Portuguese should raze to the ground the fortress of Kuriyat, Doba and Matara.
In Janaury 1650, Mascate, the last Portuguese base in Arabia was taken by the Omanits. By the loss of Mascate, the Portuguese were deprived of their last stronghold in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf and this ended the so called "Portuguese period" in the Persian Gulf.

BOOKS ON PORTUGUESE PRESENCE IN THE PERSIC GULF:

- Al-Khalifa, Shaikh Abdullah Bin Khalid and Abahussain, Dr. Ali "Bahrain Through The Ages - Vol.2"
Historical Documents Centre, 1995, Bahrain
1 The Carmathians of Bahrain; 2 The Ayounis; 3 The Zenk and the Selgrids; 4 The Juboors; 5 The Portuguese; 6 The Utoob; 7 Shaik Ahmed al Fateh; 8 Shaik Salman bin Ahmed al Khalifa; a General treaty of 1820; b Francis Loch’s diary; c Agreement of Bruce with al Qasimi.
- Al Maamiry, Ahmed Hamoud "Omani - Portuguese history"
80 pp. ills. Lancers Publishers, 1982, New Delhi, India.
Omanis and the Indian Ocean; the Portuguese and the Indian Ocean; the Portuguese supremacy; the Portuguese occupation of Oman; the decline of the Portuguese rule; the East African scene; three year siege of fort Jesus; the Portuguese attempt to reoccupy Mombasa; assessment of Portuguese achievements; East Africa after the Portuguese; Omani-Portuguese relations.
- Andrada, Ruy Freyre de   "Commentaries of Ruy Freyre de Andrada" ?
Edited with an Introduction by C.R. Boxer.
328 pp.            Robert M. McBride & Co., 1930, NY, USA.
- Barendse, R. J.   "The Arabian Seas, 1640-1700" ?
vi + 465 pp.      Leiden University, 1998, Leiden, NL.
- Boxer, Ch. R. "Anglo-Portuguese Rivalry in the Persian Gulf, 1615-1635"
In: Boxer, Ch. R. "Portuguese conquest and commerce in Southern Asia 1500-1750" 1985, London, UK.
- Costa, Paolo M. "Historical interpretation of the territory of Muscat"
In: AA. VV. "Oman studies: papers on archeology and history of Oman" 203 pp.  Istituto Italiano per il Medio e l'Estremo Oriente, 1989, Roma, Italia. pp. 97-117
- Costa, Paolo   "Musandam: Architecture and Material Culture of a Little Known Region of Oman" ?
250 pp.       Vine House, 1995,
- Dias Farinha, Antonio "Os Portugueses no Golfo Persico 1507-1538 "
266 pp. Dissertaçao Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa 1990 Lisboa.
Also in: Mare Liberum, Revista de História dos Mares Nº 3 , pp. 1-159, 1991, Lisbon, Portugal.
This book contain a vast collection of documents about the first years of Portuguese presence in the Persian Gulf.
- Dinteman, Walter "Forts of Oman" ?
128 pp., numerous col. photogrs.    1993.
A highly pictorial account of the role of the fort in Oman's history since the 16th century.
- Gonçalves, Julio  "Mascate, Albuquerque e os sultanatos do Oman 1507-1659"
In: "Anais" do Club  Militar Naval, pp. 421-435        1940, Lisboa, Portugal.
- Kervran, Monik (ed.) "Bahrain in the XVI Century. An Impregnable Island"
93 pp. ills., plans and maps Ministry of Information State of Bahrain, 1988, Bahrain.
pp. 7-34 -Kervran, Monique "Bahrain in the Sixteenth Century. Political and Military Events"
pp. 35-84 -AA. VV. "The Bahrain Fort in the Sixteenth Century"
pp. 85-92 -Moreira, Rafael "Inofre de Carvalho: a Renaissance Architect in the Gulf"
- Kervran, Monik; Negre, Arlette; Michele Pirazzoli "Excavation of Qal'at al -Bahrain 1st Part (1977-1979)" ?
119 pp, plans, b&w & col photos Ministry of Information, 1982, Bahrain.
- Muir, J. "Reminiscencias Portuguesas na Arabia Oriental"
13 pp. Separatas do boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa 1961 Lisboa, Portugal.
- Ozbaran, Salih "The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf (1534-1581)" ?
Thesis University of London, 1969, London, UK.
- Ozbaran, Salih "The Ottoman response to European Expansion. Studies on Ottoman-Portugese relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman administration in the Arab lands during the Sixteenth Century"
xv, 222 pp. b/w ills., 4 maps, Analecta Isisiana XII, The Isis Press, 1994, Istanbul, Turkey.
The complete collection of English articles written by Salih Özbaran from 1972 till 1993.
1- Introduction: Articles: The present state of historiography, 1993; A review of Portuguese and Turkish sources, 1985.
2- Characteristics of an Empire: Articles: The Ottomans' role in the diffusion of fire-arms and military technology in Asia and Africa in the sixteenth century, 1986; The Ottoman empire and the spice routes in the sixteenth century, 1990; Expansion in the Southern seas, 1987.
3- Vicissitudes of the Sixteenth Century: Articles: A Turkish report on the Red Sea and the Portuguese in the Indian ocean (1525), 1978; An Imperial letter from Süleyman the Magnificent to dom João III concerning proposals from an Ottoman-Portuguese armistice [1544], 1990; Two letters of dom Álvaro de Noronha from Hormuz. Turkish activities along the coast of Arabia: 1550-1552, 1978; Bahrain in 1559. A narrative of Turco-Portuguese conflict in the Gulf, 1982; The Ottomans in confrontation with the Portuguese in the Red Sea after the conquest of Egypt in 1517, 1986; The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534-1581, 1972; The Ottomans in East Africa: a tribute to Cengiz Orhonlu, 1990.
- Risso, Patricia  "Oman and Muscat: an early modern history" ?
xvii + 258 pp.        Croom Helm, 1986, London, UK.
- Serjeant, R. B. "The Portuguese off the South Arabian Coast: Hadrami chronicles. With Yemeni and European accounts of Dutch pirates off Mocha in the seventeenth century" ?
XIV, 233 pp. With 2 maps and 14 plates, 1974, Beirut, Lebanon. Clarendon, 1963, Oxford
- Slot, B. J.  "The Arabs of the Gulf 1602-1784" ?
xvii + 436 pp.        Slot, 1993, Leidschendam.
- Vine, Peter; Casey and Vine, Paula (eds.) "Oman in history" ?
560 pp.         Immel Publishing, 1995, London, UK.
- Ziolkowski, Michele "Al Bidyah excavations, 1999"
In: "BSAI Nesletter"  n°4, November 1999, British School of Archeology in Iraq.

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 The Portuguese forts in the Straits of Hormuz.    

Map of the Portuguese forts in the Straits of Hormuz.

                 Al Bidiyah, UAE (Libedia ?), tower guard.        Dibba, UAE (Doba), ruins of the fort.

Al Bidiyah, UAE (Libedia ?), tower guard.  Dibba, UAE (Doba), ruins of the fort.

   Khasab (Cassapo or Caçapo) fort in the Musandam Peninsula, Oman.   Khasab (Cassapo or Caçapo) fort in the Musandam Peninsula, Oman.

Khasab (Cassapo or Caçapo) fort in the Musandam Peninsula, Oman. My thanks to Peter Rowland for these photos.


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