Category: Asia

Trincomalee 1 – The History of Trincomalee during Portuguese and Dutch rule: Introduction

Post author By admin
Post date February 18, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

INDEX:

1.0 The History of Trincomalee during Portuguese and Dutch rule: Introduction.

2.0 Trincomalee: The first contacts with the Portuguese.

3.0 Trincomalee: The arrival of the Danes, the Dutch and the construction of the Portuguese Fort.

4.0 Trincomalee: The Dutch conquest and the abandonment of the Fort.

5.0 Trincomalee: The new Dutch occupation and the reconstruction of the Fort.

6.0 Trincomalee: The French attempt.

7.0 Trincomalee: The consolidation of the Dutch presence.

8.0 Trincomalee: The first British occupation and the definitive Dutch surrender.

9.0 Trincomalee: Bibliography.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The bay, called by the Portuguese ‘Baía dos Arcos’, where is situated the city of Trincomalee 1 on the island of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) has always been considered as one of the best ports of the world. Its highly strategic position in the centre of the Indian Ocean trade routes and its control of the entire Gulf of Bengal would have rendered the place ideal for the development of a great port and trading centre, but this did not happen. In fact otherwise from what it could be thought, seeing the beauty and the importance of such an anchorage, Trincomalee, never became a centre of primary importance during the Portuguese and Dutch colonial age. The first two colonial powers, which dominated and occupied the coastal areas of the island of Ceylon for about 300 years (1505/6-1796), preferred to focus their interest towards the southwestern part of the island (where have been the ports of Colombo and Galle), while along the east coast the Portuguese and Dutch presence was non-existent, or for part of the mentioned period limited to the surrounding zone of the forts of Trincomalee and Batticaloa.

This lack of interest for Trincomalee and in a generalized manner for the eastern coast was caused by various factors. The main reason, was at the age of the arrival of the Portuguese in Ceylon, the more important kingdom of the island and with which the Portuguese had trade relations (mainly because of the commerce of cinnamon) was that of Kotte, whose territories extended in the south western zone of the island 2 and whose capital, Jayawardhanapura Kotte, was a few kilometers from Colombo, thus Colombo became used from the Portuguese as the main base for the subsequent expansion on the island. During the first Portuguese period the east coast of Ceylon was practically neglected, and only after the first European contenders (the Danish and the Dutch) reached threateningly the Asian seas, the Portuguese deemed the occupation and the fortification of Trincomalee and Batticaloa necessary.

Another reason, for which Trincomalee never rose to the rank of an important trading centre during the Portuguese period, was well explained by Queyroz: “[Trincomalee] … had one great inconvenience, that at that time there were no other neighbours save the Bedas who are such barbarous and unruly men that they did not even show their face.” 3 Queyroz further on observed, that if the zone around Trincomalee would become inhabited and cultivated, it could be easily self-sufficient. 4

The port of Trincomalee, together with those of Kottiyar and Batticaloa, was used, in the 16th century by the kingdom of Kandy, as a port for the export of elephants and walnuts of areca and for the import of the goods of first necessity from other Asian countries. Although Barros indicates Trincomalee between the nine reigns of the island of Ceylon,5 it was only a small principality under the dominion of the Vanniyar6 of Trincomalee and Kottiyar who was tributary and subject at least nominally to the king of Kandy. The territory subject to the Vanniyar of Trincomalee was scarcely inhabited and had an extension of 23 leagues.7 Trincomalee was situated between the areas nominally controlled by the kingdoms of Kandy and Jaffna. The presence of the river Mahaweli Ganga, which does not flow far away from Trincomalee, facilitated the connections with the plateau and with Kandy and thanks to this, an intense traffic of goods was carried out through the ports of Kottiyar and Trincomalee. In the village of Vintêna, which was situated three leagues from Trincomalee, the Kandyans used to trade and to exchange the products of Ceylon (mainly elephants and walnuts of areca) with opium and other consumer goods, with the merchants arriving from the rest of Asia.8

According to what Queyroz writes, Triquilemalê means “mountain of the three pagodas”, which were erected 9 by the king of Ceylon on a high cape above the sea, two of them were situated at the extremity of an overhanging cliff to the sea, the third instead was situated in the middle of the cape on a higher point. This last pagoda, the temple of Koneswaram, was the main of all and one of the most venerated of all India.10 The main reason of the importance of Trincomalee was this pagoda, which Queyroz called the Rome of the populations of the East or the Rome of the pagans.11 The temple is described, in a letter of 1613 written by the Jesuit fray Barradas: “[The temple is]… a massive structure, a singular work of art. It was of great height, constructed with wonderful skill in blackish granite, on a rock projecting into the sea, and occupied a large space on the summit.”12 The village of Trincomalee was situated on the isthmus of the cape where there were the pagodas.

To be continued by: The first contacts with the Portuguese

NOTES:

1 Called by the Portuguese: Triquinimale (Bocarro “Livro das plantas…”, vol. II, p. 238; Bocarro “Decada 13 da história da Índia”, vol. I, p. 11), Triquilemalê (Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…”, vol. I, p. 66), Trinquilamale (Bocarro “Década 13 da historia da India”, vol. I, p. 277), Trinquilimale (Bocarro “Década 13 da história da Índia”, vol. I, p. 277), Triquilimale (“Carta do Vice-Rei da Índia” Livros das Monções, Goa, vol. 37, fls 129-129 v).

2 The monarch of the kingdom of Kotte called himself emperor of the entire island, but the directed authority of the reign of Kotte in the first decades of the 16th century extended exclusively on the rich and densely inhabited lands comprised between the course of the rivers Malwatu Oya to the north and Walawe Ganga to the south, while towards the interior it reached the borders of mountains of the central plateau. The kingdom that occupied the mountainous part of the island, scarcely inhabited and poor, was the reign of Kandy or Udarata it at least nominally recognized the power of the reign of Kotte. Also some scarcely inhabited zones situated on the eastern side of the island and subject to small heads called ‘vanniyars’ or ‘princes’ nominally recognized the authority of the kingdom of Kotte, even in effect were independent of fact. In the north part of the island instead the kingdom of Jaffna was situated, this kingdom did not recognize the pretensions of Kotte on all of the island. In 1521 inner revolts carried to the division of the reign of Kotte and to the formation of three reigns, Kotte (governed by Bhuvanekabahu VII), Sitavaka (governed by Mayadunne) and Raigama (governed by Pararajasimha).

3 Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…”, vol. II, p. 735

The Veddah (Bedas) are the most ancient original aboriginal population of the island. The word Veddah is of singhalese origin and means wild. Today some communities of Veddah still remain, the three main ones find themselves in the vicinities of Batticaloa, Trincomalee and Anuradhapura.

4 Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…”, vol. III, pp. 1153-1154.

5 Barros “Década III”, p. 117.

6 Hereditary head.

7 Perniola “The Catholic Church in Sri Lanka. The Portuguese period”, vol. I, p. 286.

8 This commerce was mainly in the hands of the Muslim merchants. Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…”, vol. II, p. 736.

9 According to what Queyroz wrote they were erected 1300 years before Christ. Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…”, vol. I, p. 67.

10 Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…”, vol. I, p. 66 and vol. II, p. 736.

11 Queyroz “The temporal and spiritual…” vol. I, pp. 236-237.

12 Perniola, V. “The Catholic Church in Sri Lanka. The Portuguese period”, vol. II, p. 366.

Dutch Colonialism Sri Lanka

The Dutch Fort of Galle in Sri Lanka (Ceylon)

Post author By admin
Post date February 18, 2014

Dutch Fort, Galle, Sri Lanka. Author and Copyright Dietrich Köster

Written by Marco Ramerini. Photos by Dietrich Köster.

The city of Galle is located along the southwestern coast of Sri Lanka, about 120 km south of Colombo. Here first the Portuguese, and then the Dutch had built a fort to control the bay.

The Portuguese sacked Galle in 1587 and then in 1597 built a small fort on a hillock. In 1620 they built a new fort on the promontory, they called this new fortification: Forte Santa Cruz. The Portuguese lost Galle on 13 March 1640.

The Dutch, after the conquest of the city – which occurred in 1640 – rebuilt the fort – this happened around 1663- surrounding the entire peninsula, making it an important strategic stronghold, it now encompasses the oldest part of town. The Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications were declared by UNESCO a world heritage site, and are in good state of preservation.

Inside are the Dutch government house, the evangelical church (Groote Kerk) built in Baroque style in 1775 – the church is paved with grave stones from the old Dutch cemetery (Kerkhof)-, and several houses in the Dutch style.

The defensive structure is formed by 14 bastions, and with its walls encloses the entire peninsula where is the old city of Galle. The area of the fort encloses an area of approximately 52 hectares and its main entrance, during Dutch period, was located along the northeastern part of the walls, is what today is called “Old Gate”, here on the inside is the inscription of the symbol Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindindische Compagnie, VOC) and the date 1669. What today is called “Main Gate” was opened by the British in 1897, between the Moon bastion and the Sun bastion.

According to UNESCO Galle remains the best example of a fortified city built by Europeans in South and South-East Asia.

Meera Mosque built in 1904, Dutch Fort, Galle, Sri Lanka. Author and Copyright Dietrich Köster

Portuguese Colonialism United Arab Emirates

The Portuguese forts of Quelba and Corfacão (Khor Fakkan)

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

The city of Khor Fakkan (Corfação) is located along the east coast of the United Arab Emirates (25°20’N – 56°22’E). Here, the Portuguese, around 1620, built a triangular fortress with triangular bastions and a round tower in the center.

In the log book of the Dutch vessel the Meerkat (1666) we read: “Gorfacan is a place on a small bay, which has about 200 small houses all built from date branches, near the beach. It had on the northern side a triangular Portuguese fortress, of which the desolate ruins can still be seen. On the southern coast of the bay in a corner there is another fortress on a hill, but there is no garrison nor artillery on it, and it is also in ruins.”

Just 35 km south of Khor Fakkan is the town of Quelba (Kalba). Here on March 1624 the Portuguese built a square fortress.

Portuguese forts of Quelba and Corfacão from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

For the image thanks to Prof. Nuno Varela Rubim and Prof. Rui Carita (“O Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia, na Fortaleza de S. Julião da Barra, com 22 plantas de anónimo (I Manuel Godinho de Erédia, de cerca de 1620), e 55 plantas de anónimo (II de cerca de 1640)”).

Quelba and Corfação. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese fort of Matrah (Matara)

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Situated in a natural harbour near the Oman capital Muscat, tha city of Matrah (Matara).

The Portuguese built a fort in Matrah in 1588, the fort was part of the defenses of the city of Muscat.

The Portuguese controlled the fort between 1588 and 1648.

The fort at Matrah was a square fort with four bastions at the corners.

Portuguese fort of Matarâ (Matrah) from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Matara. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese fort of Soar

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

The city of Sohar (24 ° 21’N – 56 ° 43’E) is located along the Omani coast about 200 km north-west of Muscat.

The Portuguese came to Soar in 1507 and made the city tributary. After several rebellions, the Portuguese retook the city in 1516 and again in 1523.

The Portuguese fortified Soar probably between 1559 and 1561 building a square fortress with bastions and surrounded by walls.

The city was lost by the Portuguese on 7 November 1643.

Portuguese fort of Soar from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Soar. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese fort of Sibo

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Sibo (As Sib) (23°40’N – 58°12’E) is a coastal town located along the Oman coast 50 km north-west of Muscat, where the Portuguese in the 17th had a triangular fortress with bastions in the angles.

Here a description of this fort extracted from António Bocarro “O livro das plantas de todas as fortalezas, cidades e povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental”:

DISCRIPSSÃO DO FORTE DE SIBO: “Quatro legoas de Mascate correndo a mesma costa, ao noroeste, junto a hum palmar, na costa brava, está situado o forte que chamão Sibo, que he ja antigo, feito pellos arabios. E o procurou senhorear o Capitão Geral Rui Freire d’Andrade, como fes, por ser hum dos caminhos por onde dessem fazendas a Mascate e se recebem outras que se despendem na Arabia. Está feito em modo de triangulo, com tres baluartes nos tres cantos, hum mais eminente que os dous, onde mora o capitão. Os panos de muro, cada hum sera de des pera doze paços geometrios. Tem algûa artelharia meuda de falcõis, e lhe asiste o capitão portugues e trinta lascarins, que o vigião e defendem, cuja despeza se sostenta a mayor parte com o rendimento da terra, e só o capitão he pago do rendimento de Mascate ou da parte das rendas que os xeques tinhão na Alfandega, que pera este e outros beneficios largarão à Fazenda de Sua Magestade.” From: António Bocarro “O livro das plantas de todas as fortalezas, cidades e povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental”

Portuguese fort of Sibo from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Sibo. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese fort of Muscat (Mascate)

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Post date February 17, 2014

The Portuguese first conquered and sacked Mascate in Oman in 1507. The Portuguese retained the control over Muscat for more than a century. The Turks conquered from the Portuguese Muscat on two occasions: in 1552 and in 1581-1588. The fortifications of Muscat were reinforced by Belchior Calaça in 1588 by order of the governor of Portuguese India Don Manuel de Sousa Coutinho.

The fortifications of the city of Muscat were based on the presence in strategic points of the bay of two imposing fortifications: the Forte do Almirante (Al-Mirani Fort) and the Forte de São João (Al-Jalali Fort), which flank and dominate the entrance to the bay. The Milanese architect Giovanni Battista Cairati since 1590 improved the defenses of the city.

After the loss of the fortress of Hormuz, in 1622, the port of Muscat became the main base of the Portuguese fleet in the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula.

The Portuguese lost Muscat on 26 Janaury 1650.

Portuguese fort of Mascate from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Portuguese Colonialism United Arab Emirates

The Portuguese forts of Mada and Libedia

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

The two fortresses of Mada and Libedia were located along the eastern coast of the present United Arab Emirates.

Libedia has been identified in the present town of Bidyah (25 ° 26’N – 56 ° 21’E) along the coast midway between Fujairah and Dibba.

The two forts were square or rectangular shape with bastions at each corner.

Portuguese forts of Mada and Libedia from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Mada and Libidia. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Portuguese Colonialism United Arab Emirates

The Portuguese fort of Doba

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

The fortress of Doba, probably the present town of Diba al Hisn (25 ° 36’N – 56 ° 17’E) today in the emirate of Al-Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates, was a square fortress with round bastions and a tower in the center. The Portuguese controlled the city from 1624 to 1648.

Portuguese fort of Doba from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Doba. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese forts of Curiate and Sidabo

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Curiate (Kuriyat/Qurayyat) is a town situated south-east of Muscat along the Oman coast.

The Portuguese fortress of Curiate (Kuriyat/Qurayyat) was rectangular fortress built by the Arabs and conquered by the Portuguese in 1507. The fort was probably rebuilt in the last quarter of the 16th century. The Portuguese lost this fort in 1648.

Here a description of this fort extracted from António Bocarro “O livro das plantas de todas as fortalezas, cidades e povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental”:

DESCRIPÇÃO DA FORTALEZA DE CURIATE: “A fortaleza de Curiate, de Sua Magestade, está doze legoas antes de Mascate pera o Cabo Rosalgate, sita na costa braba, a borda da praya, onde não ha rio nem emceada nenhûa mais que hum ilheo pegado e continuo com a terra firme, que he somente ilheo em lançar ao mar hum outeiro pequeno, o qual em aguoas vivas fica em nado. Neste lugar se abrigão algûas embarcações pequenas de pescadores do sul e sudueste, porque pera mayores não tem fundo. Ao longo delle, está neste ilheo feito hum baluarte, couza pequena, do tamanho de hûa caza, de des paços andantes de praça, em quadro, que se fes pera vigiar daqui artilharia pera o campo e o mar (oje não tem nenhûa). A fortaleza de Curiate que dizemos esta a borda da praya he em quadro não perfeito, senão hum pouco mais comprida que largua, e terá de comprimento, nos dous lanços de muro que vão da praya pera a terra dentro, sincoenta paços andantes e, nos outros dous, de largura (que correm a borda da praya) trinta.” From: António Bocarro “O livro das plantas de todas as fortalezas, cidades e povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental”

Portuguese forts of Curiate and Sidabo from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Curiate and Sidabo. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese fort of Borca

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Borca was a Portuguese fortress that stood at 12 (?) leagues from Muscat along the coast of Oman. The fortress had a triangular shape with three bastions at the corners of the triangle. In the fortress lived a Portuguese captain with 8 Portuguese soldiers and 30 lascarins.

Probably the Portuguese fort of Borca corresponds to the present city of Barka (23°46’N – 57°46’E) in Oman which is located 65 km north-west of the country’s capital Muscat.

Currently in the town of Barka there are three forts: Fort Barka, which is located a few hundred meters from the beach of the Gulf of Oman. Fort Fulaij a rectangular fort with two towers. The fortification of Beit al-Numan.

Portuguese fort of Borca from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

For the images thanks to Prof. Nuno Varela Rubim and Prof. Rui Carita (“O Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia, na Fortaleza de S. Julião da Barra, com 22 plantas de anónimo (I Manuel Godinho de Erédia, de cerca de 1620), e 55 plantas de anónimo (II de cerca de 1640)”).

Borca. Text of the document from Prof. Rui Carita Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da Índia

Bahrain Iran Oman Portuguese Colonialism United Arab Emirates

The Portuguese on the Persian Gulf and on the Arabian Peninsula

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. English text revision by Dietrich Köster

The Portuguese decided shortly after their arrival in the Eastern Seas to prevent the Arabs’ trade by the conquest of Ormuz. For its strategical position, dominating the entrance to the Persian Gulf, Ormuz was one of the two strategical strongholds on the trade routes between the Arab world and Asia (the other being Aden near the Strait of Bab el Mandab). The city of Ormuz (Hormuz) was one of the most important trade centers of the whole East. On its market Persian horses and pearls were exchanged. The town was placed on a dry and barren island near the Persian mainland at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. For nearly 150 years Portugal ruled the Persian Gulf area. Ormuz was regarded by Albuquerque as the third key to the Portuguese Empire in Asia (the other two were Goa and Malacca).

The first attempt to conquer Ormuz was done in 1507 by Afonso de Albuquerque. He, at the head of a small Portuguese fleet of 7 ships and 500 men, proceeded to Ormuz. During the journey he stormed and conquered the towns of Kuryat, Muscat and Khor Fakkan. Differently the towns of Kalhat and Sohar expressed their willingness to become tributary to the King of Portugal. The Portuguese fleet anchored in front of the town of Ormuz. The King of the city was prepared for an attack and he could count on 15,000/20,000 armed men. Albuquerque was resolute and he asked the King to pay a tribute and become a vassal of Portugal, but the King’s reply was evasive, a simple attempt to protract the negotiations. After three days of waiting Albuquerque attacked the city and the King’s fleet was entirely destroyed. Seeing the complete defeat of his forces, the King sent a flag of truce offering to deliver up the city to the Portuguese.

In September 1507 Albuquerque concluded a treaty with the King of Hormuz, under which the King had to pay to the King of Portugal a yearly tribute. After this Albuquerque and his men began to build the fortress, the first stone was laid on 24 October 1507, the fort was named “Nossa Senhora da Victória”.

During the construction of the fortress insubordination arose among the Portuguese. Some Portuguese captains, with the help of the King of Ormuz, rebelled against Albuquerque. In January 1508, after several days of skirmish with the Ormuz’s forces, Albuquerque was forced to abandon the city. This was the first attempt to challenge the Portuguese rule in the Persian Gulf. The second attempt was made in 1515. In March 1515 Albuquerque with a force of 27 ships, 1,500 Portuguese and 700 Malabarese soldiers arrived in front of Ormuz. He was determined to take the town in the name of the King of Portugal and this time he was successful. The fortress was occupied by the Portuguese on 1 April 1515.

Portuguese Fort, Hormuz, Iran. Author Ninara. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike — Portuguese Fort, Hormuz, Iran. Author Ninara

The fort was renamed “Nossa Senhora da Conceição”. When the Portuguese arrived, the main ports of the Persian Gulf and Arabia such as Julfar, Bahrain, Calayate (Qalhat), Mascate, Catifa (al Qatif), Corfação and the islands of Queixome and Lareca were all under the jurisdiction of the King of Hormuz. With the fall of Ormuz, all the cities and ports on the Persian Gulf became tributary to Portugal. The kings of Hormuz continued as a regional power in conjunction with the Portuguese. In this way the Portuguese rule began in the Persian Gulf, which lasted till the years 1620/1650.

In a document of the year 1515 (“Rendimento da cidade de Oromuz e seus reinos”) are reported the ports that paid tribute to Portugal. They were: Aigom and Docer “portos que estam na barra de terra firme”, Brahemim “porto que está de fora da ilha d’Oromuz na terra firme”, Tezer “lugar na terra firme”, Beabom, Borate, Jullfar (Julfar), Callayate (Qalhat), Horfacam (Khor Fakkan), Caçapo (Khasab), Broqete “na ilha Qeixa”, Lafete “na ilha Qeixa”, Qeixa “na ilha Qeixa”, Garpez “na ilha Qeixa”, Rodom, Costaque, Chagoa, Callecazei and Lebedia (Al-Bidyah).

“A cidade de Ormuz está situada em hua pequena ilha chamada Gerum que jaz quasi na garganta de estreito do mar Parseo tam perto da costa da terra de Persia que avera de hua a outra tres leguoas e dez da outra Arabia e terà em roda pouco mais de tres leguoas: toda muy esterele e a mayor parte hua mineira de sal e enxofre sem naturalmente ter hum ramo ou herva verde. A cidade em sy é muy magnifica em edificios, grossa em tracto por ser hua escala onde concorrem todalas mercadorias orientaes e occidentaes a ella, e as que vem da Persea, Armenia e Tartaria que lhe jazem ao norte: de maneira que nam tendo a ilha em sy cousa propria, per carreto tem todalas estimadas do mundo /…../ a cidade é tam viçosa e abastada, que dizem os moradores della que o mundo é hum anel e Ormuz hua pedra preciosa engastada nelle” Joao de Barros, Decada II, L. II cap. 2

Portuguese Fort, Hormuz, Iran. Author Fariborz. No Copyright — Portuguese Fort, Hormuz, Iran. Author Fariborz

In 1521 the King of Ormuz rebelled against the Portuguese, but the latter crushed the rebellion and put a new king on the throne. In 1523, Dom Luís de Menezes occupied Soar, which had revolted, and after this, he proceeded to Qeshm, where a new treaty was concluded with the new King and a feitoria was established. In 1526 Lopo Vaz de Sampayo, the Governor of Portuguese India (1526-1529), reduced to obedience Mascate and Khalat, which had revolted. In 1542/43 the entire Customs duties of Ormuz were assigned to the King of Portugal. The years between 1550 and 1560 were years of continued warfare with the Turks for the supremacy in the Persian Gulf. In 1550/51 the Portuguese conquered from the Turks the fort of El Katiff (Al Qatif) in Arabia. In 1551/52, in order to help Ormuz’s defence a fort was built in Mascate. The Turks were determined to take revenge and in 1551/52 they attacked Mascate and sacked the town. In 1559 the Turks besieged the Portuguese fort of Bahrein, but after several months of siege, they were forced to withdraw. In 1581, Mascate was again destroyed by the Turks. In 1582 the King of Lara (Larack, an island near Ormuz), who had revolted, laid siege to the fortress of Ormuz, but the Portuguese succeeded in driving away the invaders and they in turn besieged Lara’s fort of Xamel, which was taken by the Portuguese. Finally, in 1588 the Mascate’s fortresses were again rebuilt. This time the town was also fortified and in nearby Matara (Matrah) a fort was built, too. In 1602 Shah Abbas expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain.

Ormuz used for its provisions of water the wells of Comorão on the Persian coast. Here the Portuguese had a fort. It was conquered by the Persians in 1615 (1614?). In 1616 Soar, which had revolted, was captured by a Portuguese fleet and the King was put to death. In 1619 the Portuguese fortress of Ormuz had a garrison of 500-700 soldiers. The fort of Khawr Fakkan (Corfação) was built in 1620 by Gaspar Leite. On 8 May 1621 Rui Freire de Andrada, the “General do Mar de Ormuz e costa da Persia e Arabia”, began to build a fort in Queixome (Qeshm), this fort was built to have the control of the island’s water wells. The building of this fort was regarded as an act of open hostility by the Shah of Persia, who waged war against the Portuguese. In 1622, the Arabs, who had joined the Persians, succeeded in capturing Julfar from the Portuguese. On 11 February 1622, the Portuguese fort of Queixome, after a feeble resistance, was forced to surrender to a joint Persian-English army. On 20 Febraury 1622 the Persian flotilla of more than 3,000 men with the help of 6 English ships besieged the Portuguese fortress of Ormuz. Ormuz was lost by the Portuguese on 3 May 1622. The entire Portuguese population, about 2,000 persons, were sent to Mascate.

Portuguese Fort, Qeshm, Iran. Author Alborz Fallah. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike — Portuguese Fort, Qeshm, Iran. Author Alborz Fallah

During the decade after the fall of Ormuz, the Portuguese, under the command of Rui Freire de Andrada, tried several times (1623, 1624, 1625, 1627) to regain the fortress. The last attempt in 1631 was a diplomatic one, but all these attempts failed. After the loss of Ormuz the Portuguese established their base in Mascate, and in 1623, a feitoria (trading station) was established also in Bassora at the mouth of the Euphrates River. In 1623 Rui Freire reoccupied the fort of Soar, which had been taken in 1622 by the Persians. In the same year a new base was established in Cassapo (Kashab) on the Musandam Peninsula. Kalba (Quelba) was conquered by Gaspar Leite in 1624. The fort of Mada was conquered in May 1624 by Mateus de Siebra. In 1624/25, following a treaty with the Persians, a feitoria and a fortress were established in Congo (Bandar-e Kong) on the Persian coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1631 a Portuguese fortress was built in Julfar, an important strategic point on the Musandam Peninsula. This town enjoyed during Portuguese rule great prosperity as the regional trading entrepôt. In September 1633 Rui Freire de Andrada, the great protagonist of these years, died and his body was buried in the church of St. Agostinho in Mascate. In 1633/35 peace treaties were concluded with the English and the Persians.

The Portuguese rule in the Persian Gulf was nearly more stable after the loss of Ormuz than before. In fact several fortresses and feitorias in a lot of places such as Soar, Julfar, Doba, Libedia, Mada, Khor Fakkan, Caçapo (Khasab), Congo (Kung) and Bassora were established. In August 1648, the Arabs besieged Mascate and on 31 October a treaty was signed between the two opponents. The terms were as follows: the Portuguese should raze to the ground the fortress of Kuriyat, Doba and Matara. In January 1650 Mascate, the last Portuguese base in Arabia, was taken by the Omanites. By the loss of Mascate the Portuguese were deprived of their last stronghold in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf and thus the so-called “Portuguese period” came to an end on the Persian Gulf.

The Portuguese forts in the Persian Gulf and in Oman (1500-1650). Author Marco Ramerini

Map of the Portuguese forts in the Straits of Hormuz. Author Marco Ramerini

Map of the Portuguese forts in Oman. Author Marco Ramerini

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

– Al-Khalifa, Shaikh Abdullah Bin Khalid and Abahussain, Dr. Ali “Bahrain Through The Ages – Vol.2” Historical Documents Centre, 1995, Bahrain

– Al Maamiry, Ahmed Hamoud “Omani – Portuguese history” 80 pp. ills. Lancers Publishers, 1982, New Delhi, India.

– Andrada, Ruy Freyre de “Commentaries of Ruy Freyre de Andrada” ? Edited with an Introduction by C.R. Boxer. 328 pp. Robert M. McBride & Co., 1930, NY, USA.

– Barendse, R. J. “The Arabian Seas, 1640-1700” vi + 465 pp. Leiden University, 1998, Leiden, NL.

– Boxer, Ch. R. “Anglo-Portuguese Rivalry in the Persian Gulf, 1615-1635” In: Boxer, Ch. R. “Portuguese conquest and commerce in Southern Asia 1500-1750” 1985, London, UK.

– Costa, Paolo M. “Historical interpretation of the territory of Muscat” In: Various Authors “Oman studies: papers on archeology and history of Oman” 203 pp. Istituto Italiano per il Medio e l’Estremo Oriente, 1989, Roma, Italia. pp. 97-117

– Costa, Paolo “Musandam: Architecture and Material Culture of a Little Known Region of Oman” ? 250 pp. Vine House, 1995,

– Dias Farinha, António “Os Portugueses no Golfo Pérsico 1507-1538 ” 266 pp. Dissertação Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa 1990 Lisboa. Also in: Mare Liberum, Revista de História dos Mares Nº 3 , pp. 1-159, 1991, Lisbon, Portugal. This book contains a vast collection of documents about the first years of Portuguese presence in the Persian Gulf.

– Dinteman, Walter “Forts of Oman” 128 pp., numerous col. photogrs. 1993. A highly pictorial account of the role of the fort in Oman’s history since the 16th century.

– Gonçalves, Julio “Mascate, Albuquerque e os sultanatos do Omã 1507-1659” In: “Anais” do Clube Militar Naval, pp. 421-435 1940, Lisboa, Portugal.

– Kervran, Monik (ed.) “Bahrain in the XVIth Century. An Impregnable Island” 93 pp. ills., plans and maps Ministry of Information State of Bahrain, 1988, Bahrain. pp. 7-34

– Kervran, Monik; Negre, Arlette; Michele Pirazzoli “Excavation of Qal’at al -Bahrain 1st Part (1977-1979)” 119 pp, plans, b&w & col photos Ministry of Information, 1982, Bahrain.

– Kleiss, Wolfram “Die portugiesische Seefestung auf der Insel Hormuz am. Persischen Golf” Architectura, Munich 1978:8 166-183

– Muir, J. “Reminiscências Portuguesas na Arábia Oriental” 13 pp. Separatas do Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa 1961 Lisboa, Portugal.

– Ozbaran, Salih “The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf (1534-1581)” ? Thesis University of London, 1969, London, UK.

– Ozbaran, Salih “The Ottoman response to European Expansion. Studies on Ottoman-Portugese relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman administration in the Arab lands during the Sixteenth Century” xv, 222 pp. b/w ills., 4 maps, Analecta Isisiana XII, The Isis Press, 1994, Istanbul, Turkey. The complete collection of English articles written by Salih Özbaran from 1972 till 1993.

– Risso, Patricia “Oman and Muscat: an early modern history” ? xvii + 258 pp. Croom Helm, 1986, London, UK.

– Serjeant, R. B. “The Portuguese off the South Arabian Coast: Hadrami chronicles. With Yemeni and European accounts of Dutch pirates off Mocha in the seventeenth century” XIV, 233 pp. With 2 maps and 14 plates, 1974, Beirut, Lebanon. Clarendon, 1963, Oxford

– Slot, B. J. “The Arabs of the Gulf 1602-1784” ? xvii + 436 pp. Slot, 1993, Leidschendam.

– Vine, Peter; Casey and Vine, Paula (eds.) “Oman in history” 560 pp. Immel Publishing, 1995, London, UK.

– Ziolkowski, Michele “Al Bidyah excavations, 1999” In: “BSAI Nesletter” n°4, November 1999, British School of Archeology in Iraq.

Colonial Forts on Google Earth Oman Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese Forts in Oman

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Jalali Fort, Muscat, Oman (photo © by Fritz Gosselck)

Written by Marco Ramerini. Photos by Fritz Gosselck. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

Oman is a country rich in fortifications, some of these were built along the Omani coast by the Portuguese in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, often altered from the original forms several forts built or modernized by the Portuguese are still visible today.

Two impressive fortresses are located in the capital of the Sultanate, Muscat, these are the forts of Jalali (São João) and Mirani both built by the Portuguese around 1580. A few kilometers away is the fort of Matrah also built by the Portuguese in the late sixteenth century.

On the Musandam peninsula in the far north, overlooking the Strait of Hormuz, is the village of Khasab, where another fort was built by the Portuguese around 1620.

Suwayq Fort, Oman (photo © by Fritz Gosselck).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

– Al Maamiry, Ahmed Hamoud “Omani – Portuguese history” 80 pp. illustrations, Lancers Publishers, 1982, New Delhi, India.

– Andrade, Rui Freire de “Comentários do Grande Capitão Rui Freire de Andrade” XII, 374 pp. [3] maps Ministério das Colónias, Agência Geral das Colónias 1940 Lisbon, Portugal.

– Dias Farinha, António “Os Portugueses no Golfo Pérsico 1507-1538” 266 pp., Dissertação Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa, 1990, Lisbon.

– Dinteman, Walter “Forts of Oman” 128 pp., colour photographs . 1993.

– Gonçalves, Júlio “Mascate, Albuquerque e os sultanatos do Oman 1507-1659” In: “Anais” do Clube Militar Naval, pp. 421-435, 1940, Lisbon, Portugal.

– Muir, J. Reminiscências Portuguesas na Arábia Oriental” 13 pp. Separata do Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa 1961 Lisbon, Portugal.

– Ozbaran, Salih “The Ottoman response to European Expansion. Studies on Ottoman-Portugese relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman administration in the Arab lands during the sixteenth Century” xv, 222 pp. black-and-white illustrations, 4 maps, Analecta Isisiana XII, The Isis Press, 1994, Istanbul, Turkey.

– Risso, Patricia “Oman and Muscat: an early modern history” xvii + 258 pp., Croom Helm, 1986, London, United Kingdom.

– Vine, Peter; Casey and Vine, Paula (editors) “Oman in history” 560 pp., Immel Publishing, 1995, London, United Kingdom.

Mutrah Fort, Muscat, Oman (photo © by Fritz Gosselck)

Khasab Fort, Oman (photo © by Fritz Gosselck) — Mutrah Fort, Muscat, Oman (photo © by Fritz Gosselck)

Dutch Colonialism Malaysia Portuguese Colonialism

The Fort of Malacca: Portuguese-Dutch Fortress of Malacca (Melaka)

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. Photos by Krzysztof Kudlek. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

The city of Malacca was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. Soon after the conquest of the city, which was the most important commercial port in Asia, Afonso de Albuquerque built a fortress to defend the new Portuguese possession.

The first fort, “A Famosa”, was built by Thomas Fernandes and consisted originally of a tower of four floors, serving as home to the captain of the city and surrounded by a wall. The first Captain of Malacca, Rui de Brito Patalim, enlarged this structure by adding another floor to the tower. During the first years of Portuguese rule it also served as a watchtower.

This fortification from the 1560s proved ineffective against the artillery. For this reason from 1564 a new stone wall surrounding the city began to be erected. Four years later, in 1568, the wall was not yet complete and for most of its length was still in wood. The works were completed at the end of the sixteenth century. The perimeter of the walled city then totalled 1310 fathoms.

Four main bastions were built: São Pedro, São Domingos, Santiago and Onze Mil Virgens. Four gates provided access to the fortified enclosure, one on each side. At this time “A Famosa” became known as “Fortaleza Velha”, forming a citadel within the walls of the city.

Porta de Santiago, Malacca, Malaysia. Author and Copyright Krzysztof Kudlek

In the early seventeenth century the fortifications were improved with the addition of some ramparts. These new works of fortification, however, did not prevent the Dutch to conquer the city in 1641 after a siege lasting five months. After the conquest the Dutch proceeded to strengthen the defense of Malacca by building new ramparts and reinforcing the old ones. Ceded in August 1795 by the Dutch to the British, the fort of Malacca was deemed by the new masters as too expensive to maintain and was subsequently demolished.

Today the remains of the fortifications of Malacca are quite scarce, but in recent years excavations have unearthed some parts of the ancient walls of the fortress. The main remain of the fortress is the Porta de Santiago. This was one of the old gates of the city walls during the Portuguese period, which was severely damaged in 1641 during the Dutch siege and later it was demolished and rebuilt. Above the entrance arch are the symbols of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the inscription “ANNO 1670”.

REMAINS OF SOME WALLS (MIDDELBURG BASTION) OF THE PORTUGUESE-DUTCH FORT IN MALACCA

Information and photos by Martin Carvalho and Damian Gerard Sta. Maria from Malacca. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

The photos were taken about a month after the initial discovery. The excavations are —– located next to the former Kancil Restaurant, which still houses a part of the Tourist Information Office. These excavations succeeded in revealing a part of the Portuguese Fort built between 1512 and the 1550s. The Dutch added a square rectangle to the Portuguese structure between the late 1650s and 1670, naming it “Middelburg”. This can be seen from the top view photo and from the other ones. You can also note circular concrete beams protruding at the site. They are the remnants of a Shell petrol depot built by the British in 1905. It was also discovered a huge sewage and water pipe dating back to approximately 1895.

According to the last news about 350 m of the buried walls of the fortress will be reconstructed stone by stone subject to its original dimensions of 8 m by 5 m. The completed structure will encompass the city’s 11.3 ha heritage site in Bandar Hilir. The Heritage Department under the Culture, Arts and Heritage Ministry will implement the project in stages beginning from the ancient wall site in Bandar Hilir, which has been confirmed as the Middelburg Bastion. With the project existing buildings and other structures will not be touched.

The Heritage Department will excavate and expose the southern side of the foundation of the fort’s walls and its six bastions before using laterite stones from Malacca’s Pulau Upeh to reconstruct the fort. The department will also conserve and restore the 23 historical structures within the fort’s precinct.

Malaysia Portuguese Colonialism

Flor de la Mar (Flor do Mar), 1511. A shipwrecked Portuguese Galleon

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. Photos by Krzysztof Kudlek. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

The “Flor do Mar” or “Flor de la Mar” was a Portuguese galleon of 400 tons, which was part of the fleet sent to conquer the city of Malacca in 1511. The vessel was built in Lisbon in 1502 and at the time of its construction it was one of the largest and most beautiful galleons of the time. The ship made its first trip to India in 1502 under the command of Estevão da Gama. In 1503 the ship was returning, laden with spices, to Portugal.

In 1505 the ship departed newly to Asia under the command of João da Nova. In 1506, during the return trip, the ship was forced to stop for almost a year in Mozambique for repairs. Because of its enormous size, when it was fully loaded, it was difficult to maneuver. In February 1507 the ship set sail from Mozambique and returned without load in India along with the fleet of Tristão da Cunha.

In the following years the Flor do Mar participated in major battles and events: in 1507 it participated in the conquest of Socotra, Curiate (Kuryat), Muscat, Khor Fakkan, and Ormuz. In 1509 it participated in the naval battle of Diu. The new governor of Portuguese India, Afonso de Albuquerque, used it for the conquest of Goa in 1510, and then for the conquest of Malacca in 1511.

At the end of 1511 after the Portuguese conquest of Malacca and the building of a fortress the Viceroy of India Afonso de Albuquerque prepared his fleet for the return to India.

Against the advice of his captains Albuquerque decided to sail from Malacca in December 1511. He filled his ship – the “Flor do Mar” – with the most beautiful treasures captured in Malacca: gold, silver, precious stones, jewels etc. At the time Malacca was in effect the largest commercial port in the East and Afonso de Albuquerque wished to present the treasures to the court of Manuel I of Portugal.

The ships of the fleet were full of booty taken after the capture of the city, but probably in December 1511 during the return voyage to Goa his ship “Flor do Mar” sank during a storm and all the treasures fetched in Malacca were lost. The ship was in fact sinking along the coast of Sumatra island at the northern end of the Strait of Malacca.

Today a replica of the “Flor de la Mar” is housed in the Maritime Museum in Malacca.

Dutch Colonialism Macau

Dutch Graves in Macau

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Photos by Magiel Venema. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

The Dutch have never had control over the Portuguese colony of Macao. But despite this they have used this Portuguese outpost in China for their trade. This is evidenced by the numerous tombs Dutch in the two ancient cemeteries of the city: the Roman Catholic cemetery and the Old Protestant Cemetery.

The Roman Catholic cemetery of Macau, Cemitério de São Miguel Arcanjo (Saint Miguel Catholic Cemetery), is located right in the middle of the Macao peninsula, on the Estrada do Cemitério, about half a mile to the northeast of Monte Fort. Inside this cemetery are several interesting Dutch tombstones.

The Old Protestant Cemetery is situated next to the Camões Garden and can be reached by walking north and downhill from the Ruins of São Paulo’s Cathedral. In this cemetery are 162 tombs, several of them are Dutch tombstones. This Cemetery was established by the British East India Company in 1821.

Dutch grave (1786) in the Protestant cemetery, Macau. Photo by Magiel Venema

After the founding of the cemetery some graves were moved from their original positions in the Protestant cemetery. This explains the existence of graves dating back long before the founding of the cemetery. The English East India Company allowed the burial in their cemetery of all foreign. In the Protestants Cemetery are the graves of various nationalities including many Dutch graves some of which date back to the eighteenth century.

In 2005, the Old Protestant Cemetery was included in the World Heritage of UNESCO as part of the UNESCO site of Macau (Historic Center of Macau).

Asia Portuguese Colonialism Portuguese language

Portuguese language heritage in Asia

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

The Portuguese language has been in relation to the trade and colonial expansion of Portugal the trade language of the Indian Ocean shores in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portuguese was used, at that time, not only in the eastern cities conquered by the Portuguese but was also used by many local rulers in their relations with the other European powers (Dutch, English, Danes etc. ).

In Ceylon, for example, Portuguese was used for all contacts between the Europeans and the local peoples. Several Kings of Ceylon spoke it fluently. Portuguese names were common among the nobility. When the Dutch occupied coastal Ceylon they, particularly under van Goens, took measures to stop the use of Portuguese. However, it had become so well established among the Ceylonese that even the families of the Dutch Burghers started to speak it. In 1704, the Governor Cornelius Jan Simonsz said that “if one spoke Portuguese in Ceylon, one could be understood everywhere”.

Also in the Dutch eastern capital city of Batavia (today’s Jakarta) Portuguese was the spoken language in the 17th and 18th centuries. The religious missions contributed to the great spreading of the Portuguese language. Indeed, as many communities converted to Christianity, they adopted the Portuguese mother tongue. Also the Protestant missions (Dutch, Danish, English…) that worked in India were forced to use Portuguese as their evangelisation language.

The Portuguese language has also influenced many an oriental language. Many Portuguese words were permanently lent to various kinds of Eastern languages such as Indian languages (Bengali included), Swahili, Malay, Indonesian, Japanese, Ceylonese languages, Tetum of Timor and also Afrikaans in South Africa.

Besides, where the Portuguese presence was stronger or lasted longer, flourishing communities of “Casados” and “Mestiços” were developed that adopted a variety of the mother tongue: a kind of Creole Portuguese.

What remains today is very little. However it is interesting to notice that, to this day, there are small communities of peoples spread throughout Asia that continue to use Creole Portuguese, although for many years (for centuries, in some cases) they had no contact with Portugal. Another interesting aspect to contemplate is that, during the best period of Portuguese presence in Asia, the number of Portuguese there was never more than 12.000 to 14.000 souls, including the clergy.

Portuguese-speaking communities in Asia (Blue Present-day places, where Portuguese is spoken. Red Places, where communities used to speak Portuguese). Author Marco Ramerini

TODAY, THERE ARE PORTUGUESE SPEAKING COMMUNITIES IN:

Malacca: (Portuguese Settlement, Praya Lane, Bandara Hilir). About 1000 people speak this Creole Portuguese (Papia Kristang). About 80 % of the older residents of the Portuguese settlement in Malacca regularly speak Kristang. There are also some speakers in today’s Singapore and Kuala Lumpur. Kristang is very close to local Malay in its grammatical structure, but its vocabulary is for 95% derived from Portuguese. Not many years ago, Portuguese was also spoken in Pulau Tikus (Penang) but now it is considered extinct. The Eurasian community has 12.000 members on the Malay Peninsula. Active are MPEA (Malacca Portuguese Eurasian Association) and SPEMA (Secretariat of the Portuguese/Eurasian Malaysian Associations) with seven separate member associations in Alor Star, Penang, Perak, Malacca (MPEA), Kuala Lumpur, Seremban and Johor Baru. There is also a Eurasian Association in Singapore. Portugal lost Malacca in 1641.

Korlai: (near Chaul, India). About 900 monolingual people speak this Creole Portuguese, this community has his Portuguese church called: “Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Monte Carmelo”. Originated around 1520 on the west coast of India. Initially isolated from its Hindu and Muslim neighbors by social and religious barriers, the small Korlai community lost virtually all Portuguese contact as well after 1740. Portugal lost Chaul in 1740.

Damão: (Damão Grande or Praça, Campo dos Remédios, Jumprim, Damão da Cima). About 2000 people speak this Creole Portuguese. Portugal lost Damão in December 1961.

Ceylon: [Portuguese Burghers in Batticaloa (Koolavaddy, Mamangam, Uppodai, Dutch Bar, Akkaraipattu); Trincomalee (Palayuttu); Kaffir communities of Mannar and Puttalam ]. It’s now used at home only. It was spoken by 250 families in Batticaloa as late as 1984. There are still 100 families in Batticaloa and Trincomalee and about 80 Afro-Sinhalese (Kaffir) families in Puttalam. Of about 5.000 Creole people (Batticaloa, Trincomalee), only 500 still speak Creole, the younger generations cannot speak the Creole. < Silva Jayasuriya, 2000 > Nearly extinct. In Batticaloa there is the Burgher Recreio Clube “Shamrock” or “Batticaloa Catholic Burgher Union”. There is a little community of Portuguese descendants in the village of WahaKotte (circa 7°42’N. – 80°36’E) (Central Sri Lanka, six kilometers from Galewala on the road between Galewala and Matale), they are Roman Catholic, but since about two generations Portuguese Creole is no longer spoken. Portugal lost Ceylon in 1658.

Macau: About 2.000 people speak Portuguese as their first language, and about 11.500 as their second language. Only a few elderly women speak Macanese a Macao Creole Portuguese. The “Instituto Cultural de Macau” and the “Fundação do Oriente” are still active. There is also a TV channel and several newspapers entirely in Portuguese. Macau was a Portuguese province. On 20 December 1999 it was reverted to China.

Hong Kong: Several hundred people speak Macanese. Essentially, these are people that emigrated from Macao. There is the “Club Lusitano”. Never under Portuguese rule.

Goa: Portuguese is rapidly disappearing from Goa. It is now spoken only by a small segment of the upper class families and about 3 to 5 % of the people still speak it (estimated at 30.000 to 50.000 people). Today 35% of Goa’s population are immigrants from other Indian states. In the Indian school it is taught as third language (not obligatory). There is a department of Portuguese at the Goa University. However, the “Fundação do Oriente” and the Indo – Portuguese Friendship Society (Sociedade de Amizade Indo-Portuguesa) are still active. The last Newspaper in Portuguese shifted over to the English language in 1983. At Panaji many signs in Portuguese are still visible over shops, administrative buildings etc. Portugal lost Goa in December 1961.

Diu: Here the Creole Portuguese is nearly extinct. According to the testimony of Maria Luiza de Carvalho Armando, its seems that the Creole Portuguese language is still used in Diu and according to her Diu it’s the place in India where the Portuguese legacy is the most durable. (Information obtained from Maria Luíza de Carvalho Armando with thanks.) Portugal lost Diu in December 1961.

Timor: Portuguese was spoken in 1950 by less than 10,000 people and in 1974 by only about 10%-20% of the population. In 1975: East Timor had 700,000 inhabitants from which: 35-70,000 knew how to read and write Portuguese and 100-140,000 could speak and understand it. Until 1981 Portuguese was the church language of Timor, when it was supplanted by Tetum. However, it is commonly used as the business language in the town of Dili. Portuguese remains the language of the anti-Indonesian resistance and that of external communications for the Catholic Church. The Creole Portuguese of Timor (Português de Bidau) is now extinct. It was spoken around Dili, Lifau and Bidau. Indonesia invaded East Timor in 1975. Now Timor is an independent nation. It has adopted Portuguese as an official language alongside Tetum.

Indonesia: Flores island: (Larantuka, Sikka) Here Portuguese survives in the religious traditions and the Topasses community (the descendants of Portuguese men and local women) uses it in the prayers. On Saturdays the women of Larantuka say the rosary in a corrupt form of Portuguese. In the Sikka area of eastern Flores, many of the people of Sikka are descendants from the Portuguese and still??? use that language. There is the Confraternity of “Reinja Rosari”. Larantuka was abandoned by Portugal in 1859.

UNTIL A FEW YEARS AGO, PORTUGUESE SPEAKING COMMUNITIES EXISTED IN:

Ceylon: (Creole Portuguese was used amongst the Dutch Burgher community). Till the beginning of the 20th. century Creole Portuguese was spoken by the members of this community. Untill after the Second World War Sri Lankan Catholics in Colombo met for regular church services conducted in Portuguese (at the parish church of St. Anthony’s, Dematagoda). Up to the middle part of this century prayers were being conducted for diminishing groups in Portuguese at a number of Catholic churches in the city (Dematagoda, Hulftsdorp, Kotahena, Kotte, Nugegoda and Wellawatte). Although a verbal language, Portuguese was fast loosing its original purpose at religious devotions in Catholic churches (to be replaced by English and taken over more fashionably and pursued with greater vigour).

Jakarta-Batavia-Tugu: (a suburb of Jakarta). Here, till the beginning of the 20th. century, a kind of corrupted Portuguese was still spoken by the Christian population in Tugu. The last creol speaking died in 1978. Never under Portuguese rule.

Cochin: (Vypeen). It has disappeared in the last twenty years of the 20th century. The community of Portuguese/Indians (about 2,000 people) has its parish church in the old church of Nossa Senhora da Esperança. Portugal lost Cochin in 1663.

Bombaim or Província do Norte: (Baçaim, Salcete, Thana, Chevai, Mahim, Tecelaria, Dadar, Parel, Cavel, Bandora-Badra, Govai, Morol, Andheri, Versova, Malvan, Manori, Mazagão) In 1906, this Creole was, after that of Ceylon, the most important of Indo-Portuguese Creole. In 1906 there were still 5,000 people who spoke Creole Portuguese as mother tongue, of these 2,000 were in Bombaim and Mahim, 1,000 were in Bandora, 500 in Thana, 100 in Curla, 50 in Baçaim and 1,000 in other villages. There were at that time no Creole Portuguese schools and the well-to-do classes tended towards neglecting its use and preferred English. (Costa, 1892 & Dalgado, 1906)

Coromandel: Coromandel: (Meliapore, Madras, Tuticorin, Cuddalore, Karikal, Pondicherry, Tranquebar, Manapar, Negapatam) On the Coromandel coast the Portuguese descendants were generally known by the name of “Topasses”. They were Catholics and spoke Portuguese Creole. With the coming of the English rule in India, they began to speak English instead of Portuguese and also anglicized their names. They are now part of the Eurasian community. In Negapatam, in 1883, there were still 20 families that spoke Indo-Portuguese. (Schuchardt, 1883 & Dalgado, 1917)

HAVE DISAPPEARED FOR MANY YEARS THOSE OF:

Solor & Adonara: Solor, Adonara (Vure) islands on Lesser Sunda islands, Indonesia.

Batavia, Java island: (Dutch community of Batavia, Mardijkers) The Mardijkers are the descendants of the old slaves from Malacca, Bengal, Coromandel, Malabar, that were converted to Protestantism, for which they were set free. They spoke a Creole form of Portuguese and were the main group of the Portuguese community of Batavia. After the Dutch conquest of Malacca and Ceylon their number increased considerably. In 1673 a Protestant church was built in Batavia for the Portuguese community and later, at the end of the XVII century, a second church was built. In 1713 this community had about 4,000 members. (Lopes) Until 1750 Portuguese was the first language in Batavia, but after that date Malay started to dominate. In 1808 Reverend Engelbrecht celebrated the last mass in Portuguese. In 1816 the Portuguese community was incorporated into the Malay community. Also in the Dutch families of Batavia the Portuguese language was vividly used until 1750, in spite of the efforts of the Dutch Government against its use.

Mangalore: A port-city on Karnataka coast.

Cannanore: A port-city on Kerala coast.

Bengal: Bengal: (Balasore, Pipli, Chandernagore, Chittagong, Midnapore, Hugli……) The Portuguese language was in the 17th and 18th centuries the “lingua franca” in Bengal. Up to 1811 Portuguese was used in all Christian churches in Calcutta (Catholics and Protestants). At the beginning of the 20th century only in a few families a corrupted form of Portuguese was spoken, largely mixed with English words. (Campos, 1919)

Moluccas: (Ternate, Ambon, Banda, Makasar) TERNATENO, a Creole Portuguese was spoken on the islands of Ternate and West Halmahera, which is now extinct. AMBON, the Creole Portuguese is extinct, but some traces of Portuguese are in the language now spoken on Ambon, the Malay-Ambon, which has about 350 words of Portuguese origin.

Along the Indian Ocean shores there were about 44 communities where Portuguese was spoken.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

– Abdurachman, Paramita Rahayu “Some Portuguese loanwords in the vocabulary of speakers of Ambonese Malay in Christian villages of the Central Moluccas”
17 pp. LIPI, 1972, Jakarta, Indonesia.

– Clancy, Clements “The genesis of a language: the formation and development of Korlai Portuguese”
XII, 281 pp. maps, Creole language library vol.16, Benjamins, 1996, Amsterdam and Philadelphia.

– Dalgado, S. R. “Estudos sobre os Crioulos Indo-Portugueses” 187 pp. Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses 1998 Lisboa, Portugal.
Dialecto Indo-Português de Goa; Dialecto Indo-Português de Damão; Dialecto Indo-Português do Norte; Dialecto Indo-Português de Negapatão; Berço duma cantiga em Indo-Português. The latest edition of the interesting study of Sebastião Rodolfo Dalgado on the Creole languages of Goa, Damão, Negapatam and the Northern Province of India.

– Dalgado, Sebastião Rudolfo “Dialecto Indo-Português de Ceilão”
301p. (Cadernos Ásia) CNCDP, 1998, Lisboa, Portugal.

– Daus, Ronald “Portuguese Eurasian communities in Southeast Asia”
83 pp. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989, Singapore.
The Portuguese Eurasian communities in Malacca, Tugu, Larantuka and Singapore.

– Goonatilleka, M.H. “A Portuguese Creole on Sri Lanka: A Brief Socio-Linguistic Survey”
In: SOUZA, Teotónio R. de (ed.) “Indo-Portuguese History. Old Issues, New Questions (3 th ISIPH )”
pp. 147-180 Concept, 1985, New Delhi, India.

– Hettiarachchi, A. S. “Influence of Portuguese on the Singhalese Language”
JCBRAS Vol. IX, 1965, pp. 229-238

– Jackson, Kenneth David “Sing without a shame:oral traditions in Indo-Portuguese creole verse: with transcription and analysis of a nineteenth-century manuscript of Ceylon Portuguese Creole”
XXVII, 257 pp. Creole Language Library, Benjamins, 1990, Amsterdam and Philadelphia.

– Lopes, David “A Expansão da Língua Portuguesa no Oriente durante os Séculos XVI, XVII e XVIII”
265 pp. Portucalense Editora, 1969, Porto, Portugal.

– Matos, Luís de “O português, língua franca no Oriente”
In: “Colóquios sobre as províncias do Oriente” Vol. 2 Junta de Investigações do Ultramar, 1968, Lisboa. – pp. 11-23
(Estudos de Ciências Políticas e Sociais ; 81)

– Silva Jayasuriya, Shihan de “Indo-Portuguese of Ceylon: a contact language”
188 pp. Athena Publications, 2001, London, UK.

– Silva Rego, Padre António do “Dialecto português de Malaca e outros escritos”
304 pp. (Cadernos Ásia) CNCDP, 1998, Lisboa, Portugal.
Dialecto Português de Malaca; A Comunidade Luso-Malaia de Malaca e Singapura; A cultura Portuguesa na Malaia e em Singapura.

– Teixeira, Pe. Manuel “The Influence of Portuguese on the Malay Language”
In: “Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society”, 1962, vol. XXXV (Pt. 1).

– Theban, Laurentiu “Situação e perspectivas do português e dos crioulos de origem portuguesa na Índia e no Sri-Lanka” In: “Actas do Congresso sobre a situação da língua portuguesa no Mundo” vol. 1 pp. 269-285 Imprensa Nacional, 1985, Lisboa, Portugal.

Indonesia Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese Fort on Solor Island, Indonesia

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Written by Mark Schellekens. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

On January 7th I paid a visit to the island of Solor off Flores’ north east coast. My main goal was to have a birdwatching trip on an virtually unknown island combined with a visit to the ruins of the fort.

Solor is easily reached from both Flores and nearby Adonara. Direct small boats go early mornings from both Larantuka on Flores and Wairwerang on Adonara to Menanga and Lemakera on Solor.

The fort is located in the village of Lohayong (about 3km west of Menanga) on the eastern part of the island. The site of the fort is sadly overgrown with vegetation and villagers have built houses on the foundations of the fort.

Several walls are still standing up and the entrance can still be found as well as 2 abandoned cannons. Foundations can easily be traced and some of the walls facing the sea are still standing up.

The soil at the site is littered with debris from the fort and pieces of glass with VOC-logo and pieces of Dutch pottery were also found.

Before visiting the fort, visitors are asked to sign the guestbook of the mayor of Lohayong and donate a small fee.

In the village of Lemakera on the eastern tip of Solor there is a collection of 13 Portuguese guns, which were left behind. Some women guard the guns and a small fee will be asked, if one wants to take pictures of the guns.

If you know or you have photos of colonial remains around the world, send it to me, I’ll be happy to publish it in the web site. Thank you. Marco. My e-mail is on the Home page.

Indonesia Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese on Solor and in the Lesser Sunda Islands

Post author By admin
Post date February 17, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

SOLOR AND THE LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS

The early Portuguese contact with these islands was in the years about the 1520s. They frequented these islands mainly to purchase sandalwood. The early traders established only temporary warehouses. They did not build permanent trading posts, farms or fortresses, because this task was left to the Dominican missionaries. In 1561 four Dominican friars under the orders of Brother António da Cruz left Malacca to preach the Gospel on those islands. They settled on Solor. The friars had a noticeable success in the conversions. In order to protect their spiritual work from the enemies, they built a stone fortress at Solor in 1566.

Within the fort were built the friars’ dormitory, a seminary (in 1600 it contained 50 pupils) and the church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade reserved to the Portuguese. The Portuguese captain resided in a tower. On the left side of the fort a native village was built adjacent to the church of São João Baptista. A few years later the church of Misericórdia was built outside the fort near the sea. New conversions were also realized on the nearby islands of Adonara and Flores.

In the island of Ende Minor the friars built a fort (1595) and within its walls the church of São Domingos was built. The converted indigenous population settled in the vicinity of the fort, where three native villages were founded. Numbas, close to the fortress; Currolalas on the left side with the church of Santa Catarina de Siena; and Charaboro on the right side with the church of Santa Maria Madalena. The first commander of the fortress of Ende was capitão (captain) Pero Carvalhais.

By 1599 the Dominicans had built as many as 18 churches on the Solor islands:

SOLOR: – Nossa Senhora da Piedade, inside the fortress. – São João Baptista, on the left of the fort, was the native’s church. – Misericordia, in the village of Laboiana. – São João Evangelista, in the village of Lamaqueira; it was destroyed in 1598. – Madre de Deus, in the village of Guno.

ENDE: – São Domingos, inside the fort. – Santa Catarina de Siena, in the village of Currolalas. – Santa Maria Madalena, in the village of Charaboro.

FLORES: – São Lourenço, in the village of Lavunama. – Nossa Senhora de Esperança, in the village of Boibalo. – Nossa Senhora, in the village of Larantuca. – Santa Luzia, in the village of Sicà. – name unknown, in the village of Pagà. – Nossa Senhora de Assunção, in the village of Quevà. – São Pedro Martir, in the village of Lena. – Nossa Senhora da Boa Viagem, on the beach of Dondo, but it was neglected a short time after being built.

ADONARA: – Espírito Santo in the village of Cramà. – name unknown in the village of Lamala, destroyed a short time after a rebellion.

On 27 January 1613 a Dutch fleet appeared off Solor. The Portuguese captain Manuel Alvares had 30 Portuguese and 1000 natives at his disposal to defend the place. After nearly 3 months of siege the Dutch conquered the Solor fortress on 18 April 1613. They renamed it Fort Henricus.

In 1615 (?) the Dutch fled from the fort, but in 1618 they reoccupied it. Again in 1629-30, as the Dutch left Solor, the Portuguese wasted no time and occupied Solor again in 1630. However, in 1636 they left Solor and it remained deserted till the Dutch returned again in 1646.

The Dominicans moved their headquarters to Larantuka (Flores) in 1613. This was the center of the Portuguese in the Lesser Sunda islands up to 1662, when the headquarters were moved to Lifau (today Oecussi in Timor).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

– Boxer,Ch.R. “Francisco Vieira de Figueiredo: a Portuguese merchant-adventurer in South East Asia, 1624-1667” 118 pp. Martinus Nijhoff 1967, ‘s-Gravenhage, The Netherlands. The adventurous history of the life of Francisco Vieira de Figueiredo in Makassar and Larantuka.

– Kartodirdjo, Sartorio “Religious and economic aspects of Portuguese-Indonesian relations”, in: STUDIA N° 29, pp. 175 – 196, 1970, Lisbon, Portugal.

– Pinto da França, A. “Influência Portuguesa na Indonésia” in: STUDIA N° 33, pp. 161-234, 1971, Lisbon, Portugal.

– Villiers, J. “As derradeiras do mundo: The Dominican Mission and the Sandalwood trade in the Lesser Sunda Islands in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries” In: Various Authors “II Seminário Internacional de História Indo – Portuguesa” pp. 572 – 600 IICT & CEHCA, 1985, Lisbon, Portugal.

Indonesia Moluccas Portuguese Colonialism

The Portuguese in the Moluccas: Ternate and Tidore

Post author By admin
Post date February 16, 2014

Written by Marco Ramerini. English text revision by Dietrich Köster.

TERNATE AND TIDORE

The first Portuguese expedition to the Moluccas under the command of António de Abreu arrived in Amboina and on the Banda islands in 1512. After an adventurous voyage he went back to Malacca. Francisco Serrão and other members of this expedition wrecked on a reef off Lucopino island (Nusa Penju) not far from Ambon island, but somehow managed to reach first Ambon and then Ternate.

There the Sultan of Ternate adopted Serrão as his personal councilor and made him and his companions prominent figures of his royal court. From 1513 the Portuguese sent an annual trading fleet to the Spice Islands. The first under Captain António de Miranda de Azevedo opened two small “feitorias”, one in Ternate and one in Batjan.

On Febraury 1522 the Portuguese captain António de Brito came to the Banda islands and strengthened the friendship with the King of these islands. To mark this event they erected a stone “padrão” with the arms of the King of Portugal. António de Brito arrived in Ternate in May of 1522, when he built the fortress of São João Baptista de Ternate. The foundation stone of the fortress was laid on June 1522. The Jesuits soon started a school in Ternate.

The Portuguese rule in these islands was always weak. This was due to the remoteness of the islands and to the small number of Portuguese , who arrived there; the Europeans were never more than a few thousand.

Several Spanish expeditions arrived in Tidore; the first was that of Magalhães. The Spaniards settled in Tidore and annoyed the Portuguese for many years.

On 25 October 1536 the Portuguese governor, António Galvão arrived in Ternate. He was a good governor, reconciling, organizing and evangelizing the Moluccas. He was also the builder of the Portuguese town of Ternate, he built a school and a hospital and had a stone wall built all around the town. António Galvão is worshipped as the apostle of the Moluccas.

On 15 July 1575, the Portuguese surrendered the fort to the Ternatese.

The Portuguese fort of Ternate.

The Spanish town of Ternate: Ciudad del Rosario.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

– Andaya, Leonard Y. “The world of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the early modern period” University of Hawaii Press, 1993, Honolulu.

– Argensola, Bartolomé Leonardo “Conquista de las islas Malucas” 372 pp. EdicionesPolifemo, 1992 (1609), Madrid, Spain.

– Des Alwi & Hanna, A. Willard “Turbolent times past in Ternate and Tidore” (also for the Dutch history) 290 pp. Rumah Budaya 1990 Banda Neira, Moluccas, Indonesia.

– Jacobs, Hubert “A treatise on the Moluccas c. 1544. Probably the preliminary version of António Galvão’s lost História das Molucas” x, 402 pp. Sources and studies for the history of the Jesuits n° 3, Institutum Historicum S. I., 1971, Roma, Italia.

– Jacobs, Hubert “Documenta Malucensia” Vol. I-II-III Vol. I 1542-1577. XLII-84*-760 pp. (vol. 109). Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, 1974, Roma, Italia. Vol. II 1577-1605. XXXII-65*-794 pp. (vol. 119). Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, 1980, Roma, Italia. Vol. III 1606-1682. XXIV-54*-778 pp. (vol. 126). Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, 1984, Roma, Italia.

– Perez, Lorenzo OFM “Historia de las misiones de los Franciscanos en las islas Malucas y Celebes” In: “Archivum Franciscanum Historicorum” vol. VI (1913), pp. 45-60, 681-701; vol. VII (1914) 198-226, 424-446, 621-653.

– Pinto da França, A. “Influência Portuguesa na Indonésia”, in: STUDIA N° 33, pp. 161-234, 1971, Lisbon, Portugal.

– Ramerini, Marco “Le Fortezze Spagnole nell’Isola di Tidore, 1521-1663” Roma, 2008

– Rebelo, Gabriel “Informação das cousas de Maluco ……. 1569” 1856 & 1955, Lisbon, Portugal.